Background and aims of the study The idea of finding a dissertation topic which I was passionate about whilst having access to the resources required to carry out the research was very daunting for me when I started my MSc in TESOL & Intercultural Communication at the University of Strathclyde. However, when I began volunteering as an English tutor in an English language school for adult refugees, asylum seekers and forced migrants in Scotland in January 2022, it became very clear that I had to take advantage of the unique position I was in. I started on an observation basis, which allowed me to sit in on English classes for a variety of levels for a period of two months, and from there I was able to act as teaching assistant in a pre-intermediate class (equivalent of A2 level) as well as help with covering classes, both online and in the classroom. Despite completing my Master’s degree in TESOL, I am in the very early stages of my teaching career, with only this experience as a volunteer tutor and experience as an English teacher to young learners in France under my belt. Therefore, my observations at the school combined with my position as a novice teacher allowed me to have an overview of the potential obstacles to language learning for these students, and pushed me to want to explore them further, which was the starting point of this study. Although Scotland’s current ESOL strategy stresses that TESOL plays a significant role in facilitating the inclusion of migrants, it fails to provide an overview of the language learning profiles which help TESOL practitioners determine the barriers to language learning and the necessary strategies to overcome them. I decided to focus on foreign language anxiety (FLA) as despite there being a large body of research exploring this barrier to foreign language acquisition, there is very little which explores this barrier within the context of adult migrants in Scotland. The study did not follow a specific previous research design, however the literature review built a framework for the study's design and provided a theoretical foundation and empirical justification for it. The first point which was illustrated in previous research is that FLA affects adult learners in particular as their ability to understand others and make themselves understood is challenged which leads them to no longer view themselves as competent communicators as they would in their L1 (Horwitz et al, 1986). There is a great deal of research aiming to determine the causes and effects of FLA. Horwitz et al (1986) were amongst the first researchers to identify some of the possible causes of FLA, which include fear of negative evaluation, communication apprehension and test anxiety; and since then a number of researchers have continued to develop this list. The fear of making bad impressions, of receiving negative feedback, of feeling less capable than others, of being unable to express themselves clearly and correctly, and of being unable to achieve their goals of expressing themselves effectively have been found to be linked with the feelings of embarrassment and shame that FLA causes (Dovchin, 2020; Matsumoto et al, 1988; Williams & Andrade, 2008). It is only in more recent years that research has been carried out to look into FLA within the context of migrants, and found that matters such issues such as a fear of being misunderstood by members of the host community, and the added pressure of being expected to speak the native language of their country of residence perfectly (Dryden et al, 2021; Lang, 2019; Sevinç and Backus, 2019). With regards to the effects of FLA in a more general sense, studies have shown that it can have an impact on language achievement, on the degree of agency that learners have in achieving their goals, and can impair their willingness to communicate in the target language (Horwitz et al, 1986; Horwitz, 2001; Liu & Hang, 2011; Khajavy et al, 2017; Liu & Jackson, 2008). However, when looking at this context more specifically, Dryden et al (2021) and Palanac (2019) also include reluctance to engage in language learning, social withdrawal and avoidance behaviours as effects of FLA. When focusing on how FLA can be mitigated, previous studies argue that preparation (Kondo & Yin-Ling, 2004), affective strategies such as relaxation training (Hauck & Hurd, 2005), humour (Oxford, 1990), peer-seeking (Kondo & Yin-Ling, 2004) and positive self-talk (Toyama & Yamazaki, 2021); collaborative learning (Williams & Andrande, 2008; Palanac, 2019), translanguaging (Dryden et al, 2021), and trauma-informed ELT pedagogy (Palanac, 2019) have been effective in alleviating FLA. This study aimed to demonstrate their effectiveness for this particular teaching context. This study therefore aimed to understand the extent to which FLA is prevalent in an ESOL classroom for migrant learners in Scotland, its causes, its effects and the ways in which it can be mitigated. It followed a qualitative approach, using a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The rationale for using this approach was that the development of a questionnaire in a first instance would minimize the amount of pressure on the students, making them more willing to participate; and that the semi-structured interviews would provide participants with the opportunity to discuss their questionnaire responses further and explore the issues on their own terms. Unfortunately, the scope of the study was still limited by the lack of responses from students. 6 students and 11 teachers were willing to participate in the study and whilst the teachers’ responses provided an in-depth understanding of how they perceive the role of FLA, the study would have benefited from more of the student perspective. Some possible explanations for this include, firstly, that the majority of classes were being held online due to the Covid restrictions in place at the time meaning that I had to rely on email to communicate with the students; and secondly, that the questionnaire was created for all students rather than according to language levels. I also argued that FLA could have also played a part in the students’ willingness to participate in the study. Findings The data was analysed using thematic analysis, through which various themes emerged in response to each research question. The prevalence of FLA The findings revealed that FLA is prevalent, but that there is a correlation between FLA and language aptitude. On the whole, it was clear from both the students and the teachers that FLA does affect the students’ language learning process – almost all teachers could give concrete examples of how FLA has manifested itself in their classroom, and the majority of students shared common daily activities in English which are a source of anxiety for them, such as going to the supermarket, communicating with people at their children’s schools or using public transport. However, the responses also demonstrated that the students in the more advanced stages of their learning either claim/report that they do not experience it or if they do, they do not find it necessarily debilitating, that is to say that they did not report any effect on their learning or usage of English. The causes of FLA A theme which emerged is that FLA can affect migrant learners very differently than an adult learning a language for pleasure in their home country. The data showed that, for these students, FLA is caused not only by psychological factors which existing studies show are common to adult learners in general, but that there are also factors which are very specific to this particular demographic of learners. These include socio-cultural factors as well as the learners’ personal circumstances which affect the degree of anxiety that they feel when learning and using English which are not necessarily common amongst all adult language learners. The results from the student perspective especially revealed that their acquisition of English could be impeded by their apprehension of what they perceived to be the negative behaviour of native speakers and their perceptions of them based on a fear of being in a situation in which they are unable to understand or make themselves understood as well as their perceived lack of linguistic ability. When asked about they hoped to achieve by taking classes at the school, one student shared “And do not be afraid that when they ask me about something, I will not understand and will not be able to answer because now I avoid such conversations, because I'm shy and afraid that I will not understand something and will not be able to answer correctly and I'm afraid of their reaction to this”. This same student, as well as others, expressed that the behaviour of the people around them when communicating in English often causes anxiety, as they feel that they are being looked down on, that they are being criticised, and that they are being ridiculed. Finally, the results revealed that one of the most prominent source of FLA for the students is the pressure due to the circumstances surrounding their move and their language learning. Many of the teachers highlighted that language learning is very different for most of the students at the school because of their motivations. Their circumstances mean that their motivations for learning the language are very different to someone learning a foreign language for pleasure in their own home country, as well as how quickly they need to learn it, which can be a significant source of FLA. The study also found that their past learning experiences and the also plays a part in their language learning process. A few teachers highlighted that many students at the school have had very little experience of education, poor experiences, or that the level of education that they have reached in their native language is often unknown, and some students come to Scotland already struggling with literacy in their L1, which makes them more likely to be anxious when learning English than a student who had a full education Whilst these factors are unique to these particular learners, it is important to note that fact that they are unexpectedly having to learn English as an adult is another factor which was highlighted by both teachers and students. This is in line with the existing studies which suggest that this is something that is common to all adult foreign language learners. The impact of FLA on English learning and usage Whilst the teacher perspective demonstrated that FLA can affect their learning of English, the student perspective showed that it also affects their usage of English. The primary way in which FLA manifests itself is through a reluctance to communicate both in and out of the classroom, and that this can lead to social withdrawal and an unwillingness to engage in language learning at all. A key takeaway from the results of my research was that although the number of students enrolled in the school continues to grow, this only reflects the number of migrants in Scotland that are confident enough to attend English classes at all, and that there are still many migrants in Scotland who are not engaging in language learning, and it is possible that FLA has a part to play in this. Overall, it is clear that the main impact of FLA is that it can create a barrier to successful integration for the students who experience it the most. The impact that FLA can have on this particular demographic highlights the importance of having cohesive language learning profiles and of having a deep understanding of the barriers to language learning to allow for the development of mitigating strategies. Creating a learning environment in which students feel safe and comfortable as a way of alleviating FLA It was important to understand the ways in which the teachers who have an awareness of their students’ FLA attempt to mitigate it in their classroom. The overwhelming response was that, in general, the teachers aim to create an environment where their students feel safe and comfortable and that they hope that this will mitigate their FLA. They do so by creating a positive and friendly learning environment, building learners’ confidence and acknowledging the challenges of foreign language acquisition. Figure 1 shows what each of these strategies involves. Figure 1: Strategies to create a learning environment to make students feel safe and comfortable The starting point of the study was that it can be challenging to navigate the “minefield” (term used by one of the teachers) that is teaching migrant learners and to account every potential challenge that they face when learning English, especially for a new teacher like myself. It was therefore important for me to put forward some general guidelines, based on the existing research and my findings. Lack of acknowledgment of FLA at a wider level in Scotland reflected in practice Despite the measures which the teachers put in place in hoping to mitigate FLA, many of the teachers expressed also feeling at a loss with regards with how to help their students cope with their FLA, especially when it stems from socio-cultural factors and their personal circumstances. Many teachers admitted to sometimes neglecting to account for their students’ FLA as they do not have an awareness of the strategies that they can use in class to actively mitigate it. This was further demonstrated by their lack of awareness of the existing anxiety-reducing strategies in the current research, which raised some some questions about the effectiveness of these strategies for this particular context. Two recommendations were put forward based on these findings. The first is that there is a need for teacher-training courses to sensitise ELT practitioners to the barriers to language learning for this demographic, and that perhaps training on trauma-informed pedagogy (Palanac’s, 2019) would be beneficial in supporting both students and teachers. Secondly, the findings showed that there is a need for the development of anxiety-reducing strategies that are more appropriate for this demographic, therefore further exploration into this would be helpful in providing teachers a foundation for the development of anxiety-reducing strategies that migrant learners can use in their daily lives. Post-research reflections I think the school does an extraordinary job of providing these students with free or low-cost access to English lessons, and every teacher, whether they have previous experience of ELT teaching or not, is so committed to making sure that their students feel that they can come back every week to the school. Volunteering there whilst doing this research project has been a very eye-opening experience for me, especially with regards to the importance of practitioner self-care. Many of the teachers I spoke to shared with me how thought-provoking taking part in the research had been for them, and how valuable having these discussions had been for their teaching progress. I hope that my research can start useful conversations at policy-level to help future students overcome any potential barriers to successful integration, but also to ensure that the teachers who are volunteering in these schools across Scotland are getting the support that they need to continue their amazing work in helping their students reach their goals. With the increasing attempts to widen participation in Higher Education and initiatives provided by organizations and initiatives, such as University of Sanctuary, Student Action for Refugees, CARA, Screen Share, and RefugEAP, this topic can be also relevant to EAP practitioners. If you have experienced teaching refugees and asylum seekers on Pre-sessional EAP and In-sessional EAP courses and would like to comment on it or perhaps share advice or resources that informed your pedagogy, we’d like to hear from you. References: Dovchin, S. (2020). The psychological damages of linguistic racism and international students in Australia. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(7), 804–818. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2020.1759504. Dryden, S., Tankosić, A. & Dovchin, S. (2021). Foreign language anxiety and translanguaging as an emotional safe space: Migrant English as a foreign language learners in Australia. System, 101, 1-11. Hauck, M., & Hurd, S. (2005). Exploring the link between language anxiety and learner self-management in open language learning contexts. Eur. J. Open Dist. e-Learn, 1–12. Horwitz, E. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112-126. Horwitz, E.k., Horwitz, M.B. & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125-132. Khajavy, G.H., MacIntyre P. and Barabadi, E. (2017). Role of the Emotions and Classroom Environment in Willingness to Communicate. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 1-20. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000304 Kondo, D.S. & Ying-Ling, Y. (2004). Strategies for coping with language anxiety: the case of students of English in Japan. ELT Journal, 58(3), 258-265. Lang, N. W. (2019). Teachers’ translanguaging practices and “safe spaces” for adolescent newcomers: Toward alternative visions. Bilingual Research Journal, 42(1), 73-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2018.1561550 Liu, M. & Huang, W. (2011). An Exploration of Foreign Language Anxiety and English Learning Motivation. Education Research International, 12(5), 1-7. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/493167 Matsumoto, D., Kudoh, T., Scherer, K., & Wallbott, H. (1988). Antecedents of reactions to emotions in the United States and Japan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 19, 267–286. Oxford, L. R. (1990). Language learning strategy: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House Publishers. Palanac, A. (2019). Towards a trauma-informed ELT pedagogy for refugees. Language Issues, 30(2), pp.3-14. Sevinç, Y. & Backus, A. (2019). Anxiety, language use and linguistic competence in an immigrant context: a vicious circle?. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(6), 706-724. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2017.1306021. Toyama, M. & Yamazaki, Y. (2021b). Anxiety reduction sessions in foreign language classrooms. The Language Learning Journal, 49(3), 330-342. Williams, K.E. & Andrade, M.R. (2008). Foreign Language Learning Anxiety in Japanese EFL University Classes: Causes, Coping, and Locus of Control. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 5(2), 181-191.
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